CHAPTER
II
THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND
A.
Theoritical Description
1. Speaking
a. The
Nature of speaking
According
to Harmer (2001) that the ability to speak fluently presupposes not only knowledge
of language features, but also the ability to process information and language
spot. In addition, he says that effective oral communication requires the
ability to use the language appropriately in social interactions that involves
not only verbal communication but also paralinguistic elements of speech such
as pitch, stress, and intonation. Moreover, nonlinguistic elements such as
gestures, body language, and expressions are needed in conveying messages
directly without any accompanying speech.
Harmer
(2007) also says that good speaking activities can and should be extremely
engaging for the students. If they are all fully and if the teacher has set up
the activity properly and can then give sympathetic and useful feedback, they
will get tremendous satisfaction from it. And finally, the more students have
opportunities to activate the various elements of language. They have stored in
their brains, the more automatic their use of these elements become. As a
result, students gradually become autonomous language users. This means that
they will be able to use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious
thought.
According to Nunan
(1989) that successful oral communication involves:
1) The ability to
articulate phonological features of the language comprehensibly.
2) Mastery
of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns.
3) An
acceptable degree of fluency.
4) Transactional
and interpersonal skills.
5) Skills
in taking short and long speaking turns.
6) Skills
in the management of interaction.
7) Skills
in negotiating meaning.
8) Conversational
listening skills (successful conversations require good listeners as well as good
speakers).
9) Skills
in knowing about and negotiating purposes for conversations.
10) Using
appropriate conversational formulae and fillers.
From
some definitions above it can be concluded that speaking skill is always
related to communication. Speaking skill itself can be stated as the skill to
use the language accurately to express meanings in order to transfer or to get
knowledge and information from other people in the whole life situation.
b.
Element of speaking
Harmer (2001)
states that among the elements necessary for spoken production are following:
1) Connected speech
Effective
speakers of English need to be able not only to produce the individual phonemes
of English but also to use fluent connect speech. In connected speech sounds
are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking r), or weakened.
It is for this reason that we should involve students in activities designed
specifically to improve their connected speech.
2) Expressive devices
Native
speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of
utterances, vary volume and speed, and show by other physical and non-verbal
means how they are feeling. The use of these devices contributes to the ability
to convey the meanings.
They allow the
extra expression of emotion and intensity. Students should be able to deploy at
least some of such supra segmental features and devices in the same way if they
are to be fully effective communicators.
3) Lexis and grammar
Spontaneous
speech is marked by the use of a number of common lexical phrases, especially
in the performance of certain language functions. Teachers should therefore
supply a variety of phrases for different functions such as agreeing or
disagreeing, expression surprise, shock, or approval.
4) Negotiation language
Effective
speaking benefits from the negotiatory language we use to seek clarification
and to show the structure of what we are saying.
2. Collaborative
learning
a. The
Nature of Collaborative Learning
“Collaborative
Learning” is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving
joint intellectual effort by students and teachers together. Usually, students
are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding,
solutions, meanings, or creating product. Srinivas (2012) says that collaborative learning is an instruction
method in which learners work in groups toward a common academic goal.
Collaborative learning assumes that knowledge is socially, rather than
individually, constructed by communities of individuals and that the shaping
and testing of ideas is a process in which anyone can participate.
The most important factor in language
teaching is not on the methodology or approach but rather on the understanding
on what happens inside the learner when he/she is learning a new language. M.B.
Tinzmann, B.F. Jones, T.F. Fennimore, J. Bakker, C. Fine, and J. Pierce (1990)
explain collaborative classrooms seem to have four general characteristics. The
first two capture changing relationships between teachers and students. The
third characterizes teachers' new approaches to instruction.
The
fourth addresses the composition of a collaborative classroom.
1) Shared knowledge
among teachers and students
2) Shared
authority among teachers and students
3) Teachers as mediators
4) Heterogeneous
groupings of students
b. The
Characteristic of Collaborative Classroom
Collaborative classrooms seem to have
four general characteristics. The first two capture changing relationships
between teachers and students. The third characterizes teachers' new approaches
to instruction. The fourth addresses the composition of a collaborative
classroom.
1). Shared
knowledge among teachers and students
In traditional classrooms, the dominant
metaphor for teaching is the teacher as information giver; knowledge flows only
one way from teacher to student. In contrast, the metaphor for collaborative
classrooms is shared knowledge. The teacher has vital knowledge about content,
skills, and instruction, and still provides that information to students.
However, collaborative teachers also value and build upon the knowledge,
personal experiences, language, strategies, and culture that students bring to
the learning situation.
Consider a lesson on insect-eating
plants, for example. Few students, and perhaps few teachers, are likely to have
direct knowledge about such plants. Thus, when those students who do have
relevant experiences are given an opportunity to share them, the whole class is
enriched. Moreover, when students see that their experiences and knowledge are
valued, they are motivated to listen and learn in new ways, and they are more
likely to make important connections between their own learning and
"school" learning. They become empowered.
This same phenomenon occurs when the
knowledge parents and other community members have is valued and used within
the school.
2). Shared
authority among teachers and students
In collaborative classrooms, teachers
share authority with students in very specific ways. In most traditional
classrooms, the teacher is largely, if not exclusively, responsible for setting
goals, designing learning tasks, and assessing what is learned. Collaborative
teachers differ in that they invite students to set specific goals within the
framework of what is being taught, provide options for activities and
assignments that capture different student interests and goals, and encourage
students to assess what they learn.
Collaborative teachers encourage
students' use of their own knowledge, ensure that students share their
knowledge and their learning strategies, treat each other respectfully, and
focus on high levels of understanding. They help students listen to diverse
opinions, support knowledge claims with evidence, engage in critical and
creative thinking, and participate in open and meaningful dialogue.
Suppose, for example, the students have
just read a chapter on colonial Netherlands and are
required to prepare a product on the topic. While a more traditional teacher
might ask all students to write a five-page essay, the collaborative teacher
might ask students to define the product themselves.
The point here is twofold: (1) students
have opportunities to ask and investigate questions of personal interest, and
(2) they have a voice in the decision-making process. These opportunities are
essential for both self-regulated learning and motivation.
3) Teachers
as mediators
As knowledge and authority are shared
among teachers and students, the role of the teacher increasingly emphasizes
mediated learning.
Successful mediation helps students
connect new information to their experiences and to learning in other areas,
helps students figure out what to do when they are stumped, and helps them
learn how to learn. Above all, the teacher as mediator adjusts the level of information
and support so as to maximize the ability to take responsibility for learning.
4)
Heterogeneous groupings of students
The perspectives, experiences, and
backgrounds of all students are important for enriching learning in the
classroom. As learning beyond the classroom increasingly requires understanding
diverse perspectives, it is essential to provide students opportunities to do
this in multiple contexts in schools. In collaborative classrooms where
students are engaged in a thinking curriculum, everyone learns from everyone
else, and no student is deprived of this opportunity for making contributions
and appreciating the contributions of others.
Thus, a critical characteristic of
collaborative classrooms is that students are not segregated according to
supposed ability, achievement, interests, or any other characteristic.
Segregation seriously weakens collaboration and impoverishes the classroom by
depriving all students of opportunities to learn from and with each other.
Students we might label unsuccessful in a traditional classroom learn from
"brighter" students, but, more importantly, the so-called brighter
students have just as much to learn from their more average peers.
Teachers beginning to teach
collaboratively often express delight when they observe the insights revealed
by their supposedly weaker students. Thus, shared knowledge and authority,
mediated learning, and heterogeneous groups of students are essential
characteristics of collaborative classrooms.
These characteristics, which are
elaborated below, necessitate new roles for teachers and students that lead to
interactions different from those in more traditional classrooms.
3. Motivation
a. The
Nature of Motivation
Dornyei and Otto (1998) cited in Dornyei
(2001) says that motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing
cumulative arousal in a person that initiates directs , coordinates, amplifies,
terminates and evaluates the cognitive and motor process. Locke (1996) states
that motivation has been widely accepted by both teachers and researchers as
one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign
language learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning
English language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious
learning process. Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest that to be motivated means to be
moved to do something. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is
thus characterized as unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or
activated toward an end is considered motivated.
b. Gardner’s Theory
According to Gardner (1985) cited in
Dornyei, Gardner’s motivation theory has four distinct areas:
1)
Integrative motive
The integrative motive is a composite
construct made up of three main components. There are:
a)
Integrativeness
Integrativeness which subsumes
integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages, and attitudes towards
the second language community, reflecting the individual’s willingness and
interest in social interaction with members of the other groups.
b)
Attitudes towards the learning situation
Attitudes towards the learning situation
which comprises attitudes towards the language teacher and the second language
course.
c)
Motivation
Motivation,
that is, effort, desire and attitude towards learning
2)
The socio-educational model
The socio-educational model is concerned
with the role of the various individual difference characteristics of the
student in the learning of a second language. Its main importance lies in its
clear separation of four distinct aspects of the second language acquisition
process:
a) Antecedent factors
b) Individual
difference variables
c) Language acquisition
contexts
d)
Learning outcomes
The main learner variables covered by
the model are intelligence language aptitude, language strategies, language
attitudes, motivation, and anxiety. These, in turn, affect second language
attainment in formal and informal learning contexts, resulting in both
linguistic and non-linguistic learning outcomes.
3)
The attitude / motivation test battery
The attitude / motivation test battery
is a multi component motivation test made up of over 130 items which has been
shown to have very good psychometric properties, including construct and
predictive validity. It operationalises the main constituents of Gardner’s
theory and it also includes language anxiety measures as well as an index of
parental encouragement.
4)
Tremblay and Gardner’s revised model
In responses to calls for the ‘adoption
of a wider vision of motivation’ in the 1990s, Tremblay and Gardner extended
Gardner’s social psychological construct of second language motivation by
incorporating into it new elements from expectancy- value. The novel element is
the inclusion of three mediating variables between attitudes and behavior:
a)
Goal salience
Goal salience, referring to the
specificity of the learner’s goals and the frequency of goal-setting strategies
used.
b)
Valence
Valence, subsuming the traditional
scales of the’ desire to learn the second language’ and ‘attitudes towards
learning the second language’, thus denoting a second language-learning-related
value component.
c)
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, comprising anxiety and
‘performance expectancy (the latter referring to the expectancy to be able to
perform various language activities by the end of the course)
c.
Kinds of Motivation
Motivation is an important issue because
it determines not only the extent of the learners’ active involvement but also
their attitude toward learning. In the second language and foreign language
learning, motivation is divided into two main categories. Ryan and Deci (2000)
states that motivation divides into two, those are intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations:
1).
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is defined as the
doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some
separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act
for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external prods,
pressures, or rewards. Hammer (2001) states that intrinsic
motivation is motivation which comes from within the individual. Thus, a person
might be motivated by the enjoyment of learning process itself or by desire to
make themselves feel better. For example, a student interests in studying English
because of he is very interested in mastering the skills, and able to speak
English fluently. These spontaneous behaviors, although clearly bestowing
adaptive benefits on the organism, appear not to be done for any such
instrumental reason, but rather for the positive experiences associated with
exercising and extending ones capacities.
2).
Extrinsic motivation
External motivation is a kind of
motivation that emerges in studying activity. It is started and continued based
on the stimulus which has not relationship with study activity. Extrinsic
motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order
to attain some separable outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with
intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing an activity simply for the
enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its instrumental value.
It means that the students study
unmotivated by the eager to be able in the lesson, or the stimulus that emerge
aim at to get something. For example, a student studies because of he will get
praise and his parents will be glad to him.
The level of extrinsic motivation of a
student is influenced by many factors.
For example, the learner’s motivation will be probably affected in
negative or positive depending on whether the parents are against or forward
the target language. In addition, the
student’s peers also play an important role in the influence on his or her
attitude toward the language.
Harmer (2001) defines extrinsic
motivation as a kind of motivation which is caused by any number of outside
factors, such as the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the
possibility of future travel. For example, a student who does the work because
she personally believes it is valuable for her chosen career is also extrinsically
motivated because she too is doing it for its instrumental value rather than
because she finds it interesting.
In conclusion, intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations are both used in the classroom learning. Extrinsic or external
motivation can be demonstrated by an effective teacher to encourage students to
be more confident and independent and, in a long term, to become intrinsically
motivated.
d. The
Way to Motivate the Students in Learning English
After knowing the kinds of motivation,
in learning and teaching process, the role of motivation, both of intrinsic and
extrinsic are needed. The motivation for students can develop some activities
in their study. In this case, it needs to know how to motivate the students in
learning English.
Mihalas, et al. (2009) write about the
importance of good relations between teachers and students.
They notice what the effects can be if
the relations function in a good way and also the negative ones if the
relations are poor. The authors say that the teacher’s relations to his or her
students can influence whether the students will want to try to develop and
learn more. Important factors for the quality of the relations between the
student and the teacher are that the student can trust the teacher, respects him
or her and that the communication goes well.
Dornyei and Csizer (1998) cited in
Dornyei (2001) suggest that the Ten Commandments for motivating language
learners
1)
Set a personal example with your own behavior
It means that the most prominent model
in the classroom is the teacher. Dörnyei, focuses on the teacher itself as the
model of classroom obeyed by the learner. So that when the teacher is in
teaching and learning process, the teacher should always motivate the language
learner, hence they feel better and enjoy in the class. As the result, setting
a personal example cannot only be found in the class, but the environment
influence the motivation of learner also.
2) Create
a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
Class atmospheres can always be better
and there is a framework to think about them provided by the senses. Brains do
not thrive in environments with a narrow range of stimuli, so poorly kept
classrooms inhibit learning. The teacher must make a relaxed atmosphere in the
classroom.
The process of learning should be
enjoyable and students should feel comfortable about different aspects of
learning English. Create a good condition in the class is also can make the
motivation of the learners improve such as making role, giving game, singing together,
those are the way the teacher to make the relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
3)
Present the task properly
It means that the teacher should choose
the task which is appropriate for the learner and must be different from the
previous. In line with Gardner (2001) that he argue that the teacher should
make the learner enjoyable of the task.
4)
Develop a good relationship with the
learners
Developing the mutual relationship with
the learner is a good idea, because we think that the teacher should understand
the condition of the learner, the teacher should communicate with them as like
their son or daughter. The mutual relationship is good for motivating language
learners, they can talk each other closely, the learner open mind to the
teacher and tell the difficulties in learning, so that the teacher know what he
is going to do to make it better.
5)
Increase the learners’ linguistic
self-confidence
To improve the self confidence of the
learner, when the teacher has been closed each other, it will be easy for the
teacher to persuade and make the learner active in the class. Lecturers’
appreciation helps student-teachers to value their own effort and gain
confidence in their learning.
6)
Make the language classes
interesting
It means that to make the language
classes interesting is not so far from create a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere
of the class. Accordingly, the concept of ‘interest’ has been given its due
importance in Gardner’s (1985) original model and also in more recent
approaches to second language motivation.
In all, it is expected that by finding
teaching strategies to make class more engaging and interesting, a learner’s
general attitude toward learning English will improve, and furthermore, there
may be an improvement in long-term motivation.
7) Promote learner autonomy
Some writers says that autonomy leads
motivation such as Decy and Ryan for example, state in their 1985 work on
intrinsic motivation that ‘intrinsic motivation will be operative when action
is experienced as autonomous’. Autonomy and
motivation has relationship, their research about which one come first
motivation or autonomy.
8)
Personalize the learning process
It means that the language course should
be personally relevant to the learner. we can say that the personalize is
similar with making mutual relationship, because both of them want to teacher
and the learner close each other, they want the learner can share personal
information.
9)
Increase the learners’
goal-orientedness
Goal-setting can have exceptional
importance in stimulating second language learning motivation, and it is
therefore shocking that so little time and energy are spent in the second
language classroom on goal-setting. Then, goal has oriented that which
according to Gardner and Lambert (1985) cited in Dornyei (2001) distinguish two
classes of goals (orientations) in language learning: (a) the integrative
orientation, in which one desires to learn to communicate with the other, and
(b) instrumental orientation, which refers to a desire to learn the second
language in getting the occupation or for the future life. As the result, the
learners should know the goal that will reach by learning second or foreign
language.
10)
Familiarize learners with the
target language culture
It is the important thing to give
information for the learner. That is way to make the second language become
real by giving the background of the language and promoting contact for the
native speaker. Those are the Ten Command according to Dornyei and Csizer
(1998) cited in Dornyei (2001) are able to use in motivating the language
learner. By looking of those, the knowledge of the strategy can be applied for
the teacher that teaches language as a second or foreign language, because the
ideas are clear, those are based on the teacher and the learners.
B.
Framework of Theory
Collaborative
learning plays a very important role in developing the students’ motivation to
speak English. When teacher explain the material, the students don’t confidence
to speaking English. They are lack of motivation underlying rare practices
affecting on the speaking ability. Collaborative learning will help students to
improve their motivation to speak English.
As
a good English teacher, we should improve our ability and knowledge about
teaching method and try to be more creative and innovative to make the students
interest and enjoy in speaking activity. Teacher may use a new teaching method,
different material, and create a different situation in the learning process.
Teacher may try to use collaborative learning to improve students’ motivation
to speak English and practice it well. This method brings different atmosphere
for both teacher and students. It will create a good connection between teacher
and students. Because both of them will involve together in the learning
process and they will enjoy the collaborative learning which is practiced.
C.
HYPOTESIS
In
this research, formulation of hypothesis must describe the relation between two
variable or more. There are two variables that are going to be analyzed by the
writer. The first variable is about students’ motivation in Speaking English as
dependent variable and the second variable is collaborative learning as
independent variable. Based on statement above, the writer would like to give
the hypothesis as follows:
H0 : Collaborative
learning is not effective to improve students’ motivation in speaking English.
Ha : Collaborative learning is effective to improve
students’ motivation in speaking English.
