CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

A. Theoritical Description

1. Speaking

a. The Nature of speaking

According to Harmer (2001) that the ability to speak fluently presupposes not only knowledge of language features, but also the ability to process information and language spot. In addition, he says that effective oral communication requires the ability to use the language appropriately in social interactions that involves not only verbal communication but also paralinguistic elements of speech such as pitch, stress, and intonation. Moreover, nonlinguistic elements such as gestures, body language, and expressions are needed in conveying messages directly without any accompanying speech.

Harmer (2007) also says that good speaking activities can and should be extremely engaging for the students. If they are all fully and if the teacher has set up the activity properly and can then give sympathetic and useful feedback, they will get tremendous satisfaction from it. And finally, the more students have opportunities to activate the various elements of language. They have stored in their brains, the more automatic their use of these elements become. As a result, students gradually become autonomous language users. This means that they will be able to use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thought.

According to Nunan (1989) that successful oral communication involves:

1) The ability to articulate phonological features of the language comprehensibly.

2)  Mastery of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns.

3)  An acceptable degree of fluency.

4)  Transactional and interpersonal skills.

5)  Skills in taking short and long speaking turns.

6)  Skills in the management of interaction.

7)  Skills in negotiating meaning.

8) Conversational listening skills (successful conversations require good listeners as well as good speakers).

9)  Skills in knowing about and negotiating purposes for conversations.

10)  Using appropriate conversational formulae and fillers.

From some definitions above it can be concluded that speaking skill is always related to communication. Speaking skill itself can be stated as the skill to use the language accurately to express meanings in order to transfer or to get knowledge and information from other people in the whole life situation.

b. Element of speaking

Harmer (2001) states that among the elements necessary for spoken production are following:

1) Connected speech

Effective speakers of English need to be able not only to produce the individual phonemes of English but also to use fluent connect speech. In connected speech sounds are modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking r), or weakened. It is for this reason that we should involve students in activities designed specifically to improve their connected speech.

2) Expressive devices

Native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances, vary volume and speed, and show by other physical and non-verbal means how they are feeling. The use of these devices contributes to the ability to convey the meanings.

They allow the extra expression of emotion and intensity. Students should be able to deploy at least some of such supra segmental features and devices in the same way if they are to be fully effective communicators.

3) Lexis and grammar

Spontaneous speech is marked by the use of a number of common lexical phrases, especially in the performance of certain language functions. Teachers should therefore supply a variety of phrases for different functions such as agreeing or disagreeing, expression surprise, shock, or approval.

4) Negotiation language

Effective speaking benefits from the negotiatory language we use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what we are saying.

2. Collaborative learning

a. The Nature of Collaborative Learning

“Collaborative Learning” is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students and teachers together. Usually, students are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding, solutions, meanings, or creating product. Srinivas (2012) says that collaborative learning is an instruction method in which learners work in groups toward a common academic goal. Collaborative learning assumes that knowledge is socially, rather than individually, constructed by communities of individuals and that the shaping and testing of ideas is a process in which anyone can participate.

The most important factor in language teaching is not on the methodology or approach but rather on the understanding on what happens inside the learner when he/she is learning a new language. M.B. Tinzmann, B.F. Jones, T.F. Fennimore, J. Bakker, C. Fine, and J. Pierce (1990) explain collaborative classrooms seem to have four general characteristics. The first two capture changing relationships between teachers and students. The third characterizes teachers' new approaches to instruction.

The fourth addresses the composition of a collaborative classroom.

1) Shared knowledge among teachers and students

2) Shared authority among teachers and students

3) Teachers as mediators

4) Heterogeneous groupings of students

b. The Characteristic of Collaborative Classroom

Collaborative classrooms seem to have four general characteristics. The first two capture changing relationships between teachers and students. The third characterizes teachers' new approaches to instruction. The fourth addresses the composition of a collaborative classroom.

1). Shared knowledge among teachers and students

In traditional classrooms, the dominant metaphor for teaching is the teacher as information giver; knowledge flows only one way from teacher to student. In contrast, the metaphor for collaborative classrooms is shared knowledge. The teacher has vital knowledge about content, skills, and instruction, and still provides that information to students. However, collaborative teachers also value and build upon the knowledge, personal experiences, language, strategies, and culture that students bring to the learning situation.

Consider a lesson on insect-eating plants, for example. Few students, and perhaps few teachers, are likely to have direct knowledge about such plants. Thus, when those students who do have relevant experiences are given an opportunity to share them, the whole class is enriched. Moreover, when students see that their experiences and knowledge are valued, they are motivated to listen and learn in new ways, and they are more likely to make important connections between their own learning and "school" learning. They become empowered.

This same phenomenon occurs when the knowledge parents and other community members have is valued and used within the school.

2). Shared authority among teachers and students

In collaborative classrooms, teachers share authority with students in very specific ways. In most traditional classrooms, the teacher is largely, if not exclusively, responsible for setting goals, designing learning tasks, and assessing what is learned. Collaborative teachers differ in that they invite students to set specific goals within the framework of what is being taught, provide options for activities and assignments that capture different student interests and goals, and encourage students to assess what they learn.

Collaborative teachers encourage students' use of their own knowledge, ensure that students share their knowledge and their learning strategies, treat each other respectfully, and focus on high levels of understanding. They help students listen to diverse opinions, support knowledge claims with evidence, engage in critical and creative thinking, and participate in open and meaningful dialogue.

Suppose, for example, the students have just read a chapter on colonial Netherlands and are required to prepare a product on the topic. While a more traditional teacher might ask all students to write a five-page essay, the collaborative teacher might ask students to define the product themselves.

The point here is twofold: (1) students have opportunities to ask and investigate questions of personal interest, and (2) they have a voice in the decision-making process. These opportunities are essential for both self-regulated learning and motivation.

3) Teachers as mediators

As knowledge and authority are shared among teachers and students, the role of the teacher increasingly emphasizes mediated learning.

Successful mediation helps students connect new information to their experiences and to learning in other areas, helps students figure out what to do when they are stumped, and helps them learn how to learn. Above all, the teacher as mediator adjusts the level of information and support so as to maximize the ability to take responsibility for learning.

4) Heterogeneous groupings of students

The perspectives, experiences, and backgrounds of all students are important for enriching learning in the classroom. As learning beyond the classroom increasingly requires understanding diverse perspectives, it is essential to provide students opportunities to do this in multiple contexts in schools. In collaborative classrooms where students are engaged in a thinking curriculum, everyone learns from everyone else, and no student is deprived of this opportunity for making contributions and appreciating the contributions of others.

Thus, a critical characteristic of collaborative classrooms is that students are not segregated according to supposed ability, achievement, interests, or any other characteristic. Segregation seriously weakens collaboration and impoverishes the classroom by depriving all students of opportunities to learn from and with each other. Students we might label unsuccessful in a traditional classroom learn from "brighter" students, but, more importantly, the so-called brighter students have just as much to learn from their more average peers.

Teachers beginning to teach collaboratively often express delight when they observe the insights revealed by their supposedly weaker students. Thus, shared knowledge and authority, mediated learning, and heterogeneous groups of students are essential characteristics of collaborative classrooms.

These characteristics, which are elaborated below, necessitate new roles for teachers and students that lead to interactions different from those in more traditional classrooms.

3. Motivation

a. The Nature of Motivation

Dornyei and Otto (1998) cited in Dornyei (2001) says that motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates directs , coordinates, amplifies, terminates and evaluates the cognitive and motor process. Locke (1996) states that motivation has been widely accepted by both teachers and researchers as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign language learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning English language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process. Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest that to be motivated means to be moved to do something. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is thus characterized as unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or activated toward an end is considered motivated.

b. Gardner’s Theory

According to Gardner (1985) cited in Dornyei, Gardner’s motivation theory has four distinct areas:

1) Integrative motive

The integrative motive is a composite construct made up of three main components. There are:

a) Integrativeness

Integrativeness which subsumes integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages, and attitudes towards the second language community, reflecting the individual’s willingness and interest in social interaction with members of the other groups.

b) Attitudes towards the learning situation

Attitudes towards the learning situation which comprises attitudes towards the language teacher and the second language course.

c) Motivation

Motivation, that is, effort, desire and attitude towards learning

2) The socio-educational model

The socio-educational model is concerned with the role of the various individual difference characteristics of the student in the learning of a second language. Its main importance lies in its clear separation of four distinct aspects of the second language acquisition process:

a) Antecedent factors

b) Individual difference variables

c) Language acquisition contexts

d) Learning outcomes

The main learner variables covered by the model are intelligence language aptitude, language strategies, language attitudes, motivation, and anxiety. These, in turn, affect second language attainment in formal and informal learning contexts, resulting in both linguistic and non-linguistic learning outcomes.

3) The attitude / motivation test battery

The attitude / motivation test battery is a multi component motivation test made up of over 130 items which has been shown to have very good psychometric properties, including construct and predictive validity. It operationalises the main constituents of Gardner’s theory and it also includes language anxiety measures as well as an index of parental encouragement.

4) Tremblay and Gardner’s revised model

In responses to calls for the ‘adoption of a wider vision of motivation’ in the 1990s, Tremblay and Gardner extended Gardner’s social psychological construct of second language motivation by incorporating into it new elements from expectancy- value. The novel element is the inclusion of three mediating variables between attitudes and behavior:

a) Goal salience

Goal salience, referring to the specificity of the learner’s goals and the frequency of goal-setting strategies used.

b) Valence

Valence, subsuming the traditional scales of the’ desire to learn the second language’ and ‘attitudes towards learning the second language’, thus denoting a second language-learning-related value component.

c) Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy, comprising anxiety and ‘performance expectancy (the latter referring to the expectancy to be able to perform various language activities by the end of the course)

c. Kinds of Motivation

Motivation is an important issue because it determines not only the extent of the learners’ active involvement but also their attitude toward learning. In the second language and foreign language learning, motivation is divided into two main categories. Ryan and Deci (2000) states that motivation divides into two, those are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations:

1). Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external prods, pressures, or rewards. Hammer (2001) states that intrinsic motivation is motivation which comes from within the individual. Thus, a person might be motivated by the enjoyment of learning process itself or by desire to make themselves feel better. For example, a student interests in studying English because of he is very interested in mastering the skills, and able to speak English fluently. These spontaneous behaviors, although clearly bestowing adaptive benefits on the organism, appear not to be done for any such instrumental reason, but rather for the positive experiences associated with exercising and extending ones capacities.

2). Extrinsic motivation

External motivation is a kind of motivation that emerges in studying activity. It is started and continued based on the stimulus which has not relationship with study activity. Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome. Extrinsic motivation thus contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing an activity simply for the enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than its instrumental value.

It means that the students study unmotivated by the eager to be able in the lesson, or the stimulus that emerge aim at to get something. For example, a student studies because of he will get praise and his parents will be glad to him.

The level of extrinsic motivation of a student is influenced by many factors.  For example, the learner’s motivation will be probably affected in negative or positive depending on whether the parents are against or forward the target language.  In addition, the student’s peers also play an important role in the influence on his or her attitude toward the language.

Harmer (2001) defines extrinsic motivation as a kind of motivation which is caused by any number of outside factors, such as the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel. For example, a student who does the work because she personally believes it is valuable for her chosen career is also extrinsically motivated because she too is doing it for its instrumental value rather than because she finds it interesting.

In conclusion, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are both used in the classroom learning. Extrinsic or external motivation can be demonstrated by an effective teacher to encourage students to be more confident and independent and, in a long term, to become intrinsically motivated.

d. The Way to Motivate the Students in Learning English

After knowing the kinds of motivation, in learning and teaching process, the role of motivation, both of intrinsic and extrinsic are needed. The motivation for students can develop some activities in their study. In this case, it needs to know how to motivate the students in learning English.

Mihalas, et al. (2009) write about the importance of good relations between teachers and students.

They notice what the effects can be if the relations function in a good way and also the negative ones if the relations are poor. The authors say that the teacher’s relations to his or her students can influence whether the students will want to try to develop and learn more. Important factors for the quality of the relations between the student and the teacher are that the student can trust the teacher, respects him or her and that the communication goes well.

Dornyei and Csizer (1998) cited in Dornyei (2001) suggest that the Ten Commandments for motivating language learners

1) Set a personal example with your own behavior

It means that the most prominent model in the classroom is the teacher. Dörnyei, focuses on the teacher itself as the model of classroom obeyed by the learner. So that when the teacher is in teaching and learning process, the teacher should always motivate the language learner, hence they feel better and enjoy in the class. As the result, setting a personal example cannot only be found in the class, but the environment influence the motivation of learner also.

2) Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom

Class atmospheres can always be better and there is a framework to think about them provided by the senses. Brains do not thrive in environments with a narrow range of stimuli, so poorly kept classrooms inhibit learning. The teacher must make a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.

The process of learning should be enjoyable and students should feel comfortable about different aspects of learning English. Create a good condition in the class is also can make the motivation of the learners improve such as making role, giving game, singing together, those are the way the teacher to make the relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.

3) Present the task properly

It means that the teacher should choose the task which is appropriate for the learner and must be different from the previous. In line with Gardner (2001) that he argue that the teacher should make the learner enjoyable of the task.

4) Develop a good relationship with the learners

Developing the mutual relationship with the learner is a good idea, because we think that the teacher should understand the condition of the learner, the teacher should communicate with them as like their son or daughter. The mutual relationship is good for motivating language learners, they can talk each other closely, the learner open mind to the teacher and tell the difficulties in learning, so that the teacher know what he is going to do to make it better.

5) Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence

To improve the self confidence of the learner, when the teacher has been closed each other, it will be easy for the teacher to persuade and make the learner active in the class. Lecturers’ appreciation helps student-teachers to value their own effort and gain confidence in their learning.

6) Make the language classes interesting

It means that to make the language classes interesting is not so far from create a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere of the class. Accordingly, the concept of ‘interest’ has been given its due importance in Gardner’s (1985) original model and also in more recent approaches to second language motivation.

In all, it is expected that by finding teaching strategies to make class more engaging and interesting, a learner’s general attitude toward learning English will improve, and furthermore, there may be an improvement in long-term motivation.

7) Promote learner autonomy

Some writers says that autonomy leads motivation such as Decy and Ryan for example, state in their 1985 work on intrinsic motivation that ‘intrinsic motivation will be operative when action is experienced as autonomous’. Autonomy and motivation has relationship, their research about which one come first motivation or autonomy.

8) Personalize the learning process

It means that the language course should be personally relevant to the learner. we can say that the personalize is similar with making mutual relationship, because both of them want to teacher and the learner close each other, they want the learner can share personal information.

9) Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness

Goal-setting can have exceptional importance in stimulating second language learning motivation, and it is therefore shocking that so little time and energy are spent in the second language classroom on goal-setting. Then, goal has oriented that which according to Gardner and Lambert (1985) cited in Dornyei (2001) distinguish two classes of goals (orientations) in language learning: (a) the integrative orientation, in which one desires to learn to communicate with the other, and (b) instrumental orientation, which refers to a desire to learn the second language in getting the occupation or for the future life. As the result, the learners should know the goal that will reach by learning second or foreign language.

10) Familiarize learners with the target language culture

It is the important thing to give information for the learner. That is way to make the second language become real by giving the background of the language and promoting contact for the native speaker. Those are the Ten Command according to Dornyei and Csizer (1998) cited in Dornyei (2001) are able to use in motivating the language learner. By looking of those, the knowledge of the strategy can be applied for the teacher that teaches language as a second or foreign language, because the ideas are clear, those are based on the teacher and the learners.

B. Framework of Theory

Collaborative learning plays a very important role in developing the students’ motivation to speak English. When teacher explain the material, the students don’t confidence to speaking English. They are lack of motivation underlying rare practices affecting on the speaking ability. Collaborative learning will help students to improve their motivation to speak English.

As a good English teacher, we should improve our ability and knowledge about teaching method and try to be more creative and innovative to make the students interest and enjoy in speaking activity. Teacher may use a new teaching method, different material, and create a different situation in the learning process. Teacher may try to use collaborative learning to improve students’ motivation to speak English and practice it well. This method brings different atmosphere for both teacher and students. It will create a good connection between teacher and students. Because both of them will involve together in the learning process and they will enjoy the collaborative learning which is practiced.

C. HYPOTESIS

In this research, formulation of hypothesis must describe the relation between two variable or more. There are two variables that are going to be analyzed by the writer. The first variable is about students’ motivation in Speaking English as dependent variable and the second variable is collaborative learning as independent variable. Based on statement above, the writer would like to give the hypothesis as follows:

H₀    :    Collaborative learning is not effective to improve students’ motivation in speaking English.

Ha   : Collaborative learning is effective to improve students’ motivation in speaking English.